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{{For|religions sometimes described as "folk religions" or "ethnic religions"|Ethnic religion}}
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'''Folk religion''' consists of [[ethnic]] or regional [[religion|religious]] customs under the umbrella of a [[religion]], but outside of official [[doctrine]] and practices.<ref name="Bowman">{{cite book |last=Bowman | first=Marion |editor-first=Steven| editor-last=Sutcliffe |title=Religion: empirical studies |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |year=2004 |pages=3–4 |chapter=Chapter 1: Phenomenology, Fieldwork, and Folk Religion |isbn=0-7546-4158-9 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BU2BSj4dcHMC&pg=PA3&dq=%22folk+religion%22}}</ref> Folk religion has been defined as "the totality of all those views and practices of religion that exist among the people apart from and alongside the strictly theological and liturgical forms of the official religion."<ref name="Yoder">{{cite journal |last=Yoder |first=Don |year=1974 |title=Toward a Definition of Folk Religion |journal=Western Folklore |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=1–15 |month=January}}</ref>

The term "folk religion" is generally held to encompass two related but separate subjects.  The first is the religious dimension of [[folk culture]], or the folk-cultural dimensions of religion. The second refers to the study of [[syncretism]]s between two cultures with different stages of formal expression, such as the melange of African folk beliefs and [[Roman Catholicism]] that led to the development of [[Vodun]] and [[Santería]], and similar mixtures of formal religions with folk cultures.<ref>Don Yoder, "Toward a Definition of Folk Religion", above</ref>

[[Chinese folk religion]], Folk Christianity, Folk Hinduism, and Folk Islam are examples of folk religion associated with major religions. The term is also used, especially by the [[clergy]] of the faiths involved, to describe the desire of people who otherwise infrequently attend religious [[worship]], do not belong to a [[church body|church]] or similar religious society, and who have not made a formal profession of [[faith]] in a particular [[creed]], to have religious weddings or funerals, or (among Christians) to have their children [[baptism|baptised]].<ref name="Bowman"/>

Aspects of many, but not all, folk religions include:
* popular [[theophany|theophanies]], and similar phenomena like [[Marian apparition]]s, originating outside the formal liturgy and hierarchy of the faiths in question.
* [[magical thinking]]
** protective qualities ascribed to religious objects like a particular copy of the [[Bible]], [[Mojo (African American culture)|Voodoo pouch]]es, a [[crucifix]], stones, crystals, [[Eagle feather law|eagle feathers]], or any other "power" object.
** belief in traditional systems of [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] ([[hoodoo (folk magic)|hoodoo]], [[Haitian Vodou|voodoo]], [[pow-wow (folk magic)|pow-wow]], [[Benedicaria]], [[Palo Monte]], [[Anito]], [[Santería]] and [[Catimbó]])
** [[ritual]]s to ward off the [[Evil eye|Evil Eye]], [[curse]]s, [[demon]]s, [[witchcraft]], etc.

==Chinese folk religion==
[[Chinese folk religion]] or Shenism<ref>{{cite web|url=http://books.google.it/books?id=GBdX2ELnkXQC&pg=PA21&lpg=PA21&dq=shenism&source=bl&ots=qka8h6eumX&sig=yDpuMWDV4RZsuUlMRGR3NIfPQ2s&hl=it&ei=R0YATO3eDYmqnAOW3IyUAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=shenism&f=false |title=Reinventing Chinese Syncretic Religion: Shenism |publisher=Books.google.it |date=2007-02-23 |accessdate=2011-11-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.straitstimes.com/2009/9/7/how-we-came-to-pai-shen |title=How we came to ‘pai shen’ |publisher=Blogs.straitstimes.com |date=2009-09-07 |accessdate=2011-11-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://books.google.it/books?id=9MmNaNebFD8C&pg=PA198&lpg=PA198&dq=shenism&source=bl&ots=RLmEXv8QPy&sig=V1HzACgtvIHMI3nOENP2Oy5DiAM&hl=it&ei=2EYATPOJDYn-mQP97-2vDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CDUQ6AEwBzgK#v=onepage&q=shenism&f=false |title=Religious Diversity in Singapore |publisher=Books.google.it |date=2001-09-11 |accessdate=2011-11-20}}</ref> are labels used to describe the collection of [[ethnic religion|ethnic religious]] traditions which have historically comprised the predominant belief system in [[China]] and among [[Han Chinese]] ethnic groups up to the present day. Shenism describes [[Chinese mythology]] and includes the worship of ''[[Shen (Chinese religion)|shen]]'' ([[spirit]], [[Deity|god]], [[awareness]], [[consciousness]]) which can be [[nature god|nature deities]], [[Taizu]] or clan deities, [[city god]]s, [[national god|national deities]], [[culture hero]]es and [[demigod]]s, [[Chinese dragon|dragons]] and [[veneration of the dead|ancestors]]. "Shenism" as a term was first published by A. J. A Elliot in 1955.<ref>http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-126163460.html</ref>

Chinese folk religion is sometimes categorized with [[Taoism]], since over the centuries institutional Taoism has been attempting to assimilate or administrate local religions. More accurately, Taoism can be defined as a branch of Shenism, since it sprang out of folk religion and [[Chinese philosophy]]. Chinese folk religion is sometimes seen as a constituent part of Chinese traditional religion, but more often, the two are regarded as synonymous.
With around 454 million adherents, or about 6.6% of the world population,<ref>Religion. (2011). In ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''.</ref> Chinese folk religion is one of the [[major religious groups|major religious traditions in the world]]. In [[People's Republic of China|China]] more than 30% of the population adheres to Shenism or Taoism.<ref>{{cite web|author=ChartsBin |url=http://chartsbin.com/view/sgx |title=Chinese Folk Religion Adherents by Country |publisher=Chartsbin.com |date=2009-09-16 |accessdate=2011-11-20}}</ref>

Despite being heavily suppressed during the last two centuries, from the [[Taiping Rebellion]] to the [[Cultural Revolution]], it is currently experiencing a modern revival in both [[Mainland China]] and [[Republic of China|Taiwan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bulk.resource.org/gpo.gov/hearings/109h/21814.pdf |title=Roundtable before the Congressional-Executive Commission on China |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2011-11-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.journalofdemocracy.org/articles/gratis/Madsen-21-4.pdf |title=The Upsurge of Religion in China |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2011-11-20}}</ref> Various forms have received support by the [[Government of the People's Republic of China]], such as [[Mazu (goddess)|Mazuism]] in [[Northern and southern China|Southern China]] (officially about 160 million Chinese are Mazuists),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=128672542&sc=tw |title=China's Leaders Harness Folk Religion For Their Aims |publisher=Npr.org |date=2010-07-23 |accessdate=2011-11-20}}</ref> [[Yellow Emperor|Huangdi]] worship,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/2006/Apr/164216.htm |title=Over 10,000 Chinese Worship Huangdi in Henan |publisher=China.org.cn |date=2006-04-01 |accessdate=2011-11-20}}</ref><ref>[http://china.chinaa2z.com/china/html/tourism/2008/20081021/20081021150925852894/20081021151018945161.html Compatriots across the strait honor their ancestry]</ref> [[Chinese_dragon#Dragon_worship|Black Dragon]] worship in [[Shaanxi]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wwrn.org/articles/13093/?&place=china/taiwan&section=native-religions |title=Return to folk religions brings about renewal in rural China |publisher=Wwrn.org |date=2001-09-14 |accessdate=2011-11-20}}</ref><ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/20062608 The Policy of Legitimation and the Revival of Popular Religion in Shaanbei, North-Central China]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://books.google.it/books?id=KSpDTsSkuVoC&pg=PA77&lpg=PA77&dq=%22black+dragon%22+temple+shaanxi&source=bl&ots=uPhxPBoNvN&sig=dlv_oYpHi2YiNH18DgDzLyX--iQ&hl=it&ei=3Dl6TJ2hCo6ROMGY8eQG&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9&ved=0CD0Q6AEwCDgU#v=onepage&q=%22black%20dragon%22%20temple%20shaanxi&f=false |title=Miraculous response: doing popular religion in contemporary China |publisher=Books.google.it |date= |accessdate=2011-11-20}}</ref> and [[Cai Shen]] worship.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blog.voc.com.cn/blog.php?do=showone&type=blog&cid=104&itemid=624736 |title=苍南金乡玄坛庙成华夏第八财神庙 |publisher=Blog.voc.com.cn |date= |accessdate=2011-11-20}}</ref>

==Folk Christianity==
{{see|Christian mythology|Folk Catholicism}}
[[File:Botanica.jpg|right|333px|right|thumb|[[Botánica]]s such as this one in [[Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts]], [[United States|USA]], sell religious goods such as statues of [[saint]]s and [[candle]]s decorated with [[prayer]]s alongside [[folk medicine]] and [[amulets]].]]
Folk Christianity is defined differently by various scholars. Definitions include "the Christianity practiced by a conquered people",<ref>Brown, Peter Robert Lamont (2003).  ''[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-S9N1h_RS-IC&pg=PA341 The rise of Western Christendom].'' Wiley-Blackwell, 2003. ISBN 0-631-22138-7, p. 341. Last accessed July 2009.</ref> Christianity as most people live it &ndash; a term used to "overcome the division of beliefs into [[Christian theology|Orthodox]] and [[unorthodox]]",<ref>Rock, Stella (2007). ''[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dNpcEtoAk4YC&pg=PA11 Popular religion in Russia].'' Routledge ISBN 0-415-31771-1, p. 11. Last accessed July 2009.</ref> Christianity as impacted by superstition as practiced by certain geographical Christian groups,<ref>Snape, Michael Francis (2003). [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hl4EiL6CeVgC&pg=PA45 The Church of England in industrialising society]. Boydell Press, ISBN 1-84383-014-0, p. 45. Last accessed July 2009</ref> and Christianity defined "in cultural terms without reference to the [[theology|theologies]] and [[History of Christianity|histories]]."<ref>Corduan, Winfried (1998). ''[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pZW6nwbyW5kC&pg=PA37&dq Neighboring faiths: a Christian introduction to world religions].'' InterVarsity Press, ISBN 0-8308-1524-4, p. 37. Last accessed July 2009.</ref>

==Folk Islam==
{{see|Islamic mythology|Druze|Alevi|Alawi|Kebatinan}}
Folk Islam is an [[umbrella term]] used to collectively describe forms of [[Islam]] that incorporate native folk beliefs and practices.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cook|first=Chris|title=Spirituality and Psychiatry|publisher=[[RCPsych]] Publications |year=2009|page=242|isbn=978-1-904671-71-8|url=}}</ref> Folk Islam has been described as the Islam of the "urban poor, country people, and tribes", (Ridgeon, 2003)<ref>{{cite book |last=Ridgeon|first=Lloyd|title=Major World Religions: From Their Origins To The Present|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2003|page=280|isbn=978-0-415-29796-7|url=}}</ref> in contrast to [[Orthodoxy|orthodox]] or "High" Islam (Gellner, 1992; [[Sinisa Malesevic|Malesevic]] et al., 2007).<ref>{{cite book |last=Malešević|first=Siniša et al.|title=Ernest Gellner and Contemporary Social Thought|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2007|page=189|isbn=978-0-521-70941-5|url=}}</ref> [[Sufism]] and Sufi concepts are often integrated into Folk Islam.

Various practices and beliefs have been identified with the concept of "folk Islam". They include the following:
* belief in traditional magic systems and [[Religious ecstasy|ecstatic]] rituals<ref>{{cite book |last=Masud|first=Muhammad Khalid et al.|title=Islam and Modernity: Key Issues and Debates|publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]]|year=2009|page=138|isbn=978-0-7486-3793-5|url=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Makris|first=J. P.|title=Islam in the Middle East: A Living Tradition|publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]]|year=2006|page=49|isbn=978-1-4051-1603-9|url=}}</ref>
* the use of [[shrine]]s and [[amulets]] (Chelkowski et al., 1988)<ref>{{cite book |last=Chelkowski|first=Peter J. et al.|title=Ideology and Power in the Middle East: Studies in Honor of George Lenczowski|publisher=[[Duke University Press]]|year=1988|page=286|isbn=978-0-8223-0781-5|url=}}</ref>
* veneration of [[saints]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Hinde|first=Robert|title=Why Gods Persist: A Scientific Approach to Religion|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2009|page=99|isbn=978-0-415-49761-9|url=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hefner|first=Robert W. et al.|title=Islam In an Era of Nation-States: Politics and Religious Renewal in Muslim Southeast Asia|publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]]|year=1997|page=20|isbn=978-0-8248-1957-6|url=}}</ref>
* incorporation of [[Animism|animistic]] beliefs<ref>{{cite book |last=Khan|first=I. K.|title=Islam in Modern Asia|publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd.|year=2006|page=281|isbn=978-81-7533-094-8|url=}}</ref>

==Folk Hinduism==
Folk Hinduism which  includes the [[Native Dravidian religion]] differs slightly from folk Islam or folk Christianity, as the term [[Hinduism]] itself was coined in the 19th century as an [[umbrella term]] for all folk religion practiced in India. But today, folk Hinduism ("Indian folk religion" or "popular Hinduism") may still be distinguished from "high" forms of [[Hindu philosophy]], or mystical or ascetic forms. Folk Hinduism is emphatically [[polytheistic]].

==See also==
{{Portal box|Mythology|Spirituality|Religion|Philosophy}}
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==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
{{ref begin|2}}
* Allen, Catherine. ''The Hold Life Has: Coca and Cultural Identity in an Andean Community.'' Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989; second edition, 2002.
* Badone, Ellen, ed. ''Religious Orthodoxy and Popular Faith in European Society.'' Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990.
* Bastide, Roger. ''The African Religions of Brazil: Toward a Sociology of the Interpenetration of Civilizations.'' Trans. by Helen Sebba. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978.
* Blackburn, Stuart H. ''Death and Deification: Folk Cults in Hinduism'', History of Religions  (1985).
* Brintnal, Douglas. ''Revolt against the Dead: The Modernization of a Mayan Community in the Highlands of Guatemala.'' New York: Gordon and Breach, 1979.
* Christian, William A., Jr. ''Apparitions in Late Medieval and Renaissance Spain.'' Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981.
* Gellner, David N. ''Hinduism. None, one or many?'', Social Anthropology  (2004), 12: 367-371 Cambridge University* Johnson, Paul Christopher. ''Secrets, Gossip, and Gods: The Transformation of Brazilian Candomblé.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
* Gorshunova, Olga V. (2008). ''Svjashennye derevja Khodzhi Barora…'', ('' Sacred Trees of Khodzhi Baror: Phytolatry and the Cult of Female Deity in Central Asia'') in Etnoragraficheskoe Obozrenie,  n° 1, pp.&nbsp;71–82. ISSN 0869-5415. {{ru icon}}.
* {{Cite book |last= Nepstad |first= Sharon Erickson |year= 1996 |chapter= Popular Religion, Protest, and Revolt: The Emergence of Political Insurgency in the Nicaraguan and Salvadoran Churches of the 1960s–80s |title= Disruptive Religion: The Force of Faith in Social Movement Activism |editor-first= Christian |editor-last= Smith |location= New York |publisher= Routledge |pages= 105–124 |isbn= 0-415-91405-1 }}
* {{Cite book |last= Nash |first= June |year= 1996 |chapter= Religious Rituals of Resistance and Class Consciousness in Bolivian Tin-Mining Communities |title= Disruptive Religion: The Force of Faith in Social Movement Activism |editor-first=Christian |editor-last= Smith |location= New York |publisher= Routledge |pages= 87–104 |isbn= 0-415-91405-1 }}
* Nutini, Hugo. ''Ritual Kinship: Ideological and Structural Integration of the Compadrazgo System in Rural Tlaxcala.'' Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984.
* Nutini, Hugo. ''Todos Santos in Rural Tlaxcala: A Syncretic, Expressive, and Symbolic Analysis of the Cult of the Dead.'' Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988.
* Sinha, Vineeta. ''Problematizing Received Categories: Revisiting ‘Folk Hinduism’ and ‘Sanskritization’'', Current Sociology, Vol. 54, No. 1, 98-111 (2006)
* Sinha, Vineeta. ''Persistence of ‘Folk Hinduism’ in Malaysia and Singapore'', Australian Religion Studies Review Vol. 18 No. 2 (Nov 2005):211-234
* Stuart H. Blackburn, ''Inside the Drama-House: Rama Stories and Shadow Puppets in South India'', UCP (1996), ch. 3: " Ambivalent Accommodations: Bhakti and Folk Hinduism".
* Taylor, Lawrence J. ''Occasions of Faith: An Anthropology of Irish Catholics.'' Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995.
*{{Cite book |last= Thomas |first= Keith |title= Religion and the Decline of Magic. Studies in popular beliefs in sixteenth and seventeenth century England |location= London |publisher= Weidenfeld and Nicholson |year= 1971 |isbn= 0-297-00220-1 }}

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==External links==
* [http://www.asiasociety.org/countries-history/religions-philosophies/religion-philippines Folk Christianity in the Philippines]
* [http://www.miaminewtimes.com/1997-06-05/news/myths-over-miami/ "Myths over Miami"]: an account of the folk religion of children living in homeless shelters in Miami, circa 1997.